# CHAPTER IV.—_That Commonwealths have followed three Methods for extending their Power._

Any one who has read ancient history with attention, must have observed
that three methods have been used by republics for extending their
power. One of these, followed by the old Etruscans, is to form a
confederation of many States, wherein none has precedence over the rest
in authority or rank, and each allows the others to share its
acquisitions; as do the States of the Swiss League in our days, and as
the Achaians and Etolians did in Greece in earlier times. And because
the Etruscans were opposed to the Romans in many wars, that I may give
a clearer notion of this method of theirs, I shall enlarge a little in
my account of the Etruscan people.

In Italy, before the Romans became supreme, the Etruscans were very
powerful, both by sea and land; and although we have no separate
history of their affairs, we have some slight records left us of them,
and some indications of their greatness. We know, for instance, that
they planted a colony, to which they gave the name of Hadria, on the
coast of the upper sea; which colony became so renowned that it lent
its name to the sea itself, which to this day by the Latins is called
the Hadriatic. We know, too, that their arms were obeyed from the Tiber
to the foot of the mountains which enclose the greater part of the
Italian peninsula; although, two hundred years before Rome grew to any
great strength, they had lost their supremacy in the province now known
as Lombardy, of which the French had possessed themselves. For that
people, whether driven by necessity, or attracted by the excellence of
the fruits, and still more of the wine of Italy, came there under their
chief, Bellovesus; and after defeating and expelling the inhabitants of
the country, settled themselves therein, and there built many cities;
calling the district Gallia, after the name they then bore: and this
territory they retained until they were subdued by the Romans.

These Etruscans, therefore, living with one another on a footing of
complete equality, when they sought to extend their power, followed
that first method of which I have just now spoken. Their State was made
up of twelve cities, among which were Chiusi, Veii, Friuli, Arezzo,
Volterra, and the like, and their government was conducted in the form
of a league. They could not, however, extend their conquests beyond
Italy; while even within the limits of Italy, much territory remained
unoccupied by them for reasons presently to be noticed.

The second method is to provide yourself with allies or companions,
taking heed, however, to retain in your own hands the chief command,
the seat of government, and the titular supremacy. This was the method
followed by the Romans.

The third method is to hold other States in direct subjection to you,
and not merely associated with you as companions; and this was the plan
pursued by the Spartans and Athenians.

Of these three methods, the last is wholly useless, as was seen in the
case of the two States named, which came to ruin from no other cause
than that they had acquired a dominion greater than they could
maintain. For to undertake to govern cities by force, especially such
cities as have been used to live in freedom, is a difficult and arduous
task, in which you never can succeed without an army and that a great
one. But to have such an army you must needs have associates who will
help to swell the numbers of your own citizens. And because Athens and
Sparta neglected this precaution, whatever they did was done in vain;
whereas Rome, which offers an instance of the second of the methods we
are considering, by attending to this precaution reached a power that
had no limit. And as she alone has lived in this way, so she alone has
attained to this pitch of power. For joining with herself many States
throughout Italy as her companions, who in most respects lived with her
on a footing of equality, while, as has been noted, always reserving to
herself the seat of empire and the titular command, it came about that
these States, without being aware of it, by their own efforts, and with
their own blood, wrought out their own enslavement.

For when Rome began to send armies out of Italy, for the purpose of
reducing foreign kingdoms to provinces, and of subjugating nations who,
being used to live under kings, were not impatient of her yoke, and
who, receiving Roman governors, and having been conquered by armies
bearing the Roman name, recognized no masters save the Romans, those
companions of Rome who dwelt in Italy suddenly found themselves
surrounded by Roman subjects, and weighed down by the greatness of the
Roman power; and when at last they came to perceive the mistake in
which they had been living, it was too late to remedy it, so vast was
the authority which Rome had then obtained over foreign countries, and
so great the resources which she possessed within herself; having by
this time grown to be the mightiest and best-armed of States. So that
although these her companions sought to avenge their wrongs by
conspiring against her, they were soon defeated in the attempt, and
remained in a worse plight than before, since they too became subjects
and no longer associates. This method, then, as I have said, was
followed by the Romans alone; but no other plan can be pursued by a
republic which desires to extend its power; experience having shown
none other so safe and certain.

The method which consists in forming leagues, of which I have spoken
above as having been adopted by the Etruscans, the Achaians, and the
Etolians of old, and in our own days by the Swiss, is the next best
after that followed by the Romans, for as in this way there can be no
great extension of power, two advantages result: first, that you do not
readily involve yourself in war; and, second, that you can easily
preserve any little acquisition which you may make. The reason why you
cannot greatly extend your power is, that as your league is made up of
separate States with distinct seats of government, it is difficult for
these to consult and resolve in concert. The same causes make these
States careless to enlarge their territories; because acquisitions
which have to be shared among many communities are less thought of than
those made by a single republic which looks to enjoy them all to
itself. Again, since leagues govern through general councils, they must
needs be slower in resolving than a nation dwelling within one
frontier.

Moreover, we find from experience that this method has certain fixed
limits beyond which there is no instance of its ever having passed; by
which I mean that some twelve or fourteen communities may league
themselves together, but will never seek to pass beyond that limit: for
after associating themselves in such numbers as seem to them to secure
their safety against all besides, they desire no further extension of
their power, partly because no necessity compels them to extend, and
partly because, for the reasons already given, they would find no
profit in extending. For were they to seek extension they would have to
follow one of two courses: either continuing to admit new members to
their league, whose number must lead to confusion; or else making
subjects, a course which they will avoid since they will see difficulty
in making them, and no great good in having them. Wherefore, when their
number has so increased that their safety seems secured, they have
recourse to two expedients: either receiving other States under their
protection and engaging for their defence (in which way they obtain
money from various quarters which they can easily distribute among
themselves); or else hiring themselves out as soldiers to foreign
States, and drawing pay from this or the other prince who employs them
to carry out his enterprises; as we see done by the Swiss at the
present day, and as we read was done in ancient times by certain of
those nations whom we have named above. To which we have a witness in
Titus Livius, who relates that when Philip of Macedon came to treat
with Titus Quintius Flamininus, and while terms were being discussed in
the presence of a certain Etolian captain, this man coming to words
with Philip, the latter taunted him with greed and bad faith; telling
him that the Etolians were not ashamed to draw pay from one side, and
then send their men to serve on the other; so that often the banner of
Etolia might be seen displayed in two hostile camps.

We see, therefore, that the method of proceeding by leagues has always
been of the same character, and has led always to the same results. We
see, likewise, that the method which proceeds by reducing States to
direct subjection has constantly proved a weak one, and produced
insignificant gains; and that whenever these gains have passed a
certain limit, ruin has ensued. And if the latter of these two methods
be of little utility among armed States, among those that are unarmed,
as is now the case with the republics of Italy, it is worse than
useless. We may conclude, therefore, that the true method was that
followed by the Romans; which is the more remarkable as we find none
who adopted it before they did, and none who have followed it since. As
for leagues, I know of no nations who have had recourse to them in
recent times except the Swiss and the Suevians.

But to bring my remarks on this head to an end, I affirm that all the
various methods followed by the Romans in conducting their affairs,
whether foreign or domestic, so far from being imitated in our day,
have been held of no account, some pronouncing them to be mere fables,
some thinking them impracticable, others out of place and unprofitable;
and so, abiding in this ignorance, we rest a prey to all who have
chosen to invade our country. But should it seem difficult to tread in
the footsteps of the Romans, it ought not to appear so hard, especially
for us Tuscans, to imitate the Tuscans of antiquity, who if, from the
causes already assigned, they failed to establish an empire like that
of Rome, succeeded in acquiring in Italy that degree of power which
their method of acting allowed, and which they long preserved in
security, with the greatest renown in arms and government, and the
highest reputation for manners and religion. This power and this glory
of theirs were first impaired by the Gauls, and afterwards extinguished
by the Romans, and so utterly extinguished, that of the Etruscan
Empire, so splendid two thousand years ago, we have at the present day
barely a record. This it is which has led me to inquire whence this
oblivion of things arises, a question of which I shall treat in the
following Chapter.