# 4. Republics have adopted Three Methods of Expansion

The student of ancient histories will find that there are three ways in which republics have expanded. The first was that which the Tuscans of old adopted, namely, that of forming a league consisting of several republics in which no one of them had preference, authority or rank above the others; and in which, when other cities were acquired, they made them constituent members in the same way as the Swiss act in our times, and as in Greece the Achaeans and the Aetolians acted in olden times. Now, since the Romans made frequent war on the Tuscans, I shall pay special attention to them in order the better to show the nature of this first method.

Before the Romans established their imperium in Italy, the Tuscans were very powerful both by sea and by land. Though of their affairs history gives no exact account, there are one or two records and monuments which give some indication of their greatness. We know, for instance, that they sent to the mare superum, a colony which they called Adria, and that it was of such noble proportions that it gave its name to that sea which is still called the ‘Adriatic’ by the Latins. We likewise know that their arms held sway from the Tiber right up to the foot of the Alps, which encircle here the main portion of Italy, though they lost their imperium over that country which is now called Lombardy two hundred years before the Romans had acquired much power. For this district was occupied by the Gauls, who, driven by necessity or attracted by the sweetness of its fruit and especially of its wine, invaded Italy under Bellovesus, their leader, defeated and drove out the inhabitants, and settled in this region, where they built many towns. They called this district ‘Gaul’, since this was the name they then bore; and they held it till they were conquered by the Romans. The Tuscans, therefore, worked on the basis of equality, and, in expanding, followed the first of the methods mentioned above. There were twelve cities, and among others they included Chiusi, Veii, Arezzo, Fiesole, Volterra and so forth, each of which, as a member of the league, shared in the government of its empire. They never succeeded, however, in extending their gains beyond Italy; and of Italy, too, the greater part remained intact, for reasons which will presently be given.

The second method consists in forming alliances in which you reserve to yourself the headship, the seat in which the central authority resides, and the right of initiative. This was the method adopted by the Romans. The third method is to make other states subjects instead of allies, as the Spartans and the Athenians did. Of these three methods the last is quite useless, as is seen in the case of the two republics just mentioned. For they came to disaster for the simple reason that they had acquired a dominion which they could not hold. For to undertake the responsibility of governing cities by force, especially such as have been accustomed to self-government, is a difficult and tiresome business. And unless you have armed forces, and they are strong forces, you can neither impose obedience on, nor rule, them. For, if this be your plan, it is essential to have allies to assist you, and to increase the population of your own city. Wherefore, since these two cities did neither of these things, their mode of procedure was futile. But, since Rome, which exemplifies the second method, did both, she rose to exceedingly great power. And, since she was the only state that thus behaved, she was the only one that became so powerful. And, since she made many states her allies throughout the whole of Italy, which to a large extent lived under the same laws, and since, on the other hand, she reserved to herself, as has been said, the seat of empire and the right to issue orders, these allies without being aware of it, fell under her yoke and laboured and shed their blood on her behalf. For when they began to go forth with the armies of Italy and to transform kingdoms into provinces and to make subjects of those who did not mind being subjects since they were accustomed to live under kings, and who, since they had Roman governors and had been conquered by armies bearing the Roman insignia, recognized no superior other than Rome, the result was that Rome’s allies inside Italy found themselves before long encircled by Roman subjects and with an immense city, such as Rome had now become, towering above them; so that, when they realized the mistake they had been making, it was too late to put it right, so great was the authority Rome now exercised over outside provinces and so great the force which lay at her disposal within, since she had a city so enormous and so extremely well armed. And though her allies, to avenge their injuries, formed a league against her, they were soon defeated in war, with the result that their position became worse, for instead of being Rome’s allies, they now became Rome’s subjects. This mode of procedure, as has been said, has only been adopted by the Romans. Nor can a republic that wants to expand, adopt any other, for experience has shown that no other is so certain or so sure.

The alternative method of leagues, mentioned above and adopted by the Tuscans, the Achaeans, and the Aetolians, and today by the Swiss, is the next best to that of the Romans. For, though by this method it is impossible to expand indefinitely, it has two advantages. First, it does not readily involve you in war; secondly, you can easily hold as much as you take. The reason why such a republic cannot expand is that its members are distinct and each has its own capital; which makes it difficult for them to consult and to make decisions. It means also that they are less keen on acquiring dominion, for, since many communities share in that dominion, they do not appreciate further acquisitions in the same way as does a single republic which hopes to enjoy the whole. Furthermore, a league is governed by a council, which must needs be slower in arriving at any decision than are those who dwell within one and the same circle. Experience shows, too, that such a method of forming a confederation has a fixed limit, and that there is no case which indicates that this limit can be transcended. Twelve or fourteen communities join together, and beyond that they do not seek to go; for, having attained the stage at which it seems to them they can defend themselves against all comers, they do not try to extend their dominion, whether because necessity does not require them to have more power, or because they see no advantage in acquisitions for the reasons already given. For in that case they would have to do one of two things: either to proceed to get allies, which, owing to their number, would entail confusion; or to make others their subjects, which they do not care to do since in it they see difficulty and in having them no great advantage. Hence, when they have reached the number which appears to promise them security, they devote themselves to two things, (i) They accept and undertake the protection of those who apply for it, and by this means get from all around money which can easily be distributed among them. (ii) They also fight for others and take pay from a prince here and a prince there who is prepared to spend money on his enterprises.

This, as we see, is what the Swiss are doing today. It is also, as we read, what was done by the states mentioned above. Titus Livy bears witness to this when he tells us that, at a conference between Philip, king of Macedonia, and Titus Quintius Flaminius, they were talking together amicably in presence of a praetor from the Aetolians, and that, when this praetor came to speak with Philip, Philip upbraided him for the avarice and double-dealing of his people, alleging that the Aetolians had not been ashamed to fight on one side and then to let their men take service with its enemy; so that the insignia of the Aetolians were often seen in two armies which were opposed. We find, then, that this method of forming leagues has always been the same, and has led to the same results. We see, too, that this method of acquiring subjects has always entailed weakness and has produced but small advantages; and that those who went beyond the appropriate limit, were speedily ruined. Moreover, if this method of acquiring subjects is useless to republics that are armed, it is utterly useless to those that are without arms; as it has proved to be in the case of the Italian republics in our time.

It thus becomes clear that the proper method to adopt is that which the Romans adopted; which is so much the more remarkable in that it was never adopted before, and has never been imitated by anyone since Rome. As to leagues, they are only found among the Swiss, and in the Swabian league which has copied it. And, as will be said at the close of this topic a great many institutions observed in Rome, pertaining both to internal and to foreign affairs, are not only not imitated at the present time, but are deemed to be of no account, since some are looked on as fables, others as impracticable, others as irrelevant and useless; with the result that, owing to this ignorance, we [in Italy] have become the prey of anybody who has wanted to overrun this land. Yet, if to imitate the Roman way seems to be difficult, that of the Tuscans of old should not appear so difficult, especially to the Tuscans of today. For, though they were unable, for the reasons assigned, to form an empire like that of Rome, they did succeed in acquiring in Italy such power as this method of proceeding allowed. This method, too, was for a long time secure, resulting in the greatest glories of empire and of arms in the highest degree as well as customs and religious observances which are worthy of the highest praise. It was by the Gauls that this power and glory was first reduced, and by the Romans that it was extinguished; and so completely was it extinguished that great as was the power of the Tuscans two thousand years ago, of it at present there scarce remains a trace. Which leads me to consider how things come to be thus lost in oblivion, a point that will be discussed in the next chapter.41